Get the essential information you need to understand mycotoxins.
Mycotoxins are toxic compounds that are naturally produced by the secondary metabolism of fungi (moulds).
Moulds can develop anywhere FIELD to STORAGE.
DEVELOPMENT
Numerous factors influence the development of moulds and mycotoxins.
One fungus may produce several mycotoxins and one mycotoxin may be produced by different or multiple fungi.
MYCOTOXINS CAN BE DIVIDED INTO TWO CATEGORIES
Storage mycotoxins
Field mycotoxins 
Some mycotoxins can occur both in the field and in storage.
ON ANIMALS
Mycotoxins have a wide range of action mechanisms and toxic effects.
From chronic contamination (repeated ingestion of small quantities) to acute poisoning (ingestion of a large quantity over a short period), they have a negative impact on performance and economic results.
Raw materials are most often contaminated by several mycotoxins; this is known as polycontamination.
Chronic poisoning can be as harmful as acute poisoning because of the synergies that exist between certain molecules.
The impact on immunity is often viewed as the most significant effect of mycotoxins on animals. Mycotoxins affect the immune system at several levels, which weakens the animal and leads to a decline in their performance.
Toxicity varies from one mycotoxin to another and sensitivity to mycotoxins varies depending on the length of exposure, dose, species and physiological stage.
EFFECTS OF MYCOTOXINS ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND PERFORMANCE
Masked mycotoxins are mycotoxins that have been modified by the plant after they have been produced by the fungus.
METHOD OF DEVELOPMENT
These are chemical transformations done by the plant, which conjugates the mycotoxin with another molecule.
ANALYTICAL METHODS
Masked mycotoxins are difficult to detect using traditional analytical techniques because their structure has changed inside the plant. Nonetheless, in some cases, mycotoxins can be detected using specific analytical methods where their structure is known and there is an analytical standard available
TOXICITY
In general, masked mycotoxins that have been conjugated are less toxic than the original mycotoxin.
THE STRUCTURE OF MASKED MYCOTOXINS LEADS TO AN UNDERESTIMATION OF THE TOTAL LEVEL OF MYCOTOXINS IN THE SAMPLE.
BIOAVAILABILITY
Masked mycotoxins can be conjugated (extractable) or bound (non-extractable). Conjugated mycotoxins remain active because they can be released by hydrolysis during digestion or certain industrial processes, such as fermentation. They then return to their initial form as a “non-masked” toxin.
EXAMPLES
Deoxynivalenol can conjugate with glucose to give a masked mycotoxin, D3G, deoxynivalenol-3-(beta)-D-glucopyranoside.
Similarly, Z14G, zearalenone14-(beta)-D-glucopyranoside, is a masked mycotoxin obtained from zearalenone.
PROSPECTS
Masked mycotoxins derived from deoxynivalenol, zearalenone and the fumonisins have been the most studied to date, however all mycotoxins have the potential to be masked.
The best-known conjugations occur with sugars, but detailed studies need to be carried out to shed light on the possibility of complexing with other types of molecules.
AUDIT
Mycotoxins are invisible and odourless and are therefore difficult to detect in animals, since contamination causes problems that can be explained by other factors.
A risk assessment for mycotoxins is carried out by feed millers.
On the farm, a diagnostic methodology must be followed in order to establish mycotoxin contamination in animals whose performance has deteriorated.
RISK AT FEED MILL LEVEL
Raw materials
The risk of mycotoxin contamination varies from one raw material to another (see the foodstuffs affected on the individual sheets). Corn (maize), for example, presents a higher risk of contamination with Fusarium-type mycotoxins than wheat.
Climate
The risk of mycotoxin contamination varies widely from one year to another, depending on the climatic conditions.
Control plan
To assess the risk to a harvest in a collection zone, feed millers implement a control plan for the raw materials stored and processed in their factories. The control plan defines a sampling frequency for high-risk raw materials that need to be analysed.
RISK AT FARM LEVEL
Raw materials
There are three key steps to follow in diagnosing mycotoxins on the farm:
1. Identification of a herd whose performance has declined.
2. Mycotoxins Risk Evaluator : a quick (< 1 min) tool to evaluate the risk of mycotoxins on the farm concerned.
3. Analyses: high-risk feed or raw materials are analysed to confirm the diagnosis.
PREVENTION
There are various methods for preventing mycotoxin risk in animal feed. Combining them helps to reduce the risk significantly. These methods do not decontaminate raw materials but reduce the risk of mycotoxin contamination.
IN THE FIELD
Reducing the risk of mycotoxin contamination in the field relies on controlling the development of fusariosis.
Crop rotation
The risk of fusariosis is very high in a mono- culture. Previous crops of corn (maize) or sorghum significantly increase the risk of fusariosis. Long and varied rotations help to significantly reduce the risk of fusariosis and therefore of field mycotoxins.
Cultivation
The quality of cultivation and depth at which crop residues are dug in influence the development of Fusarium from one cro p to another. The risk of a sharp increase in fusariosis and therefore mycotoxins is at its highest in the absence of cultivation.
Selection of fusariosis-resistant varieties
For corn (maize), it is very important to select varieties with the potential for lateness appro- priate to local conditions.
Plant protection
Applying fungicides at the right time and in the right dose helps to reduce the deve- lopment of fusariosis. It is also essential to prevent boring insects (e.g. the European corn borer), which significantly increase the risk of fusariosis.
AT HARVEST
Harvesting conditions
Check the ripeness of the grain and hygrome- tric conditions. For corn (maize), the date of harvest is a specific risk factor compared with small-grain cereals: the later the harvest, the higher the level of fusariotoxins may be.
IN STORAGE
Pre-storage and storage conditions
Temperature and humidity conditions and the presence of insects must be rigorously checked to limit the development of Aspergillus and Penicillium-type fungi, which produce storage mycotoxins. Using preservatives during storage helps to limit fungal develop- ment and therefore the production of myco- toxins. Regular silo cleaning can eliminate certain moulds that have already developed.
IN FORMULATION
Introduction of the highest-risk raw materials
This should be limited e.g. corn (maize), parti- cularly at the most
vulnerable stages (e.g. sows, start-up, etc.)
DIFFERENT CONTROL METHODS
The aim of treatments is to reduce the concentration of mycotoxins after measures have been put in place to reduce risk.
Heat
Mycotoxins are resistant to heat treatments, even at high temperatures (e.g. autoclaving, boiling water, roasting, heating using micro- waves, etc.). Treatment at 150°C only reduces the presence of patulin by 20%, whilst no loss of FB1 is found after placing in boiling water for 30 minutes and drying at 60°C for 24 hours.
Chemical
Some mycotoxins can be destroyed with calcium hydroxide, monoethylamine, ozone or ammonia. Use of these products, however, often makes raw materials inedible for animals as well as imposing constraints (such as specific facilities) and costs and causing pollution.
Physical
Physical treatment after harvesting includes separation and sorting techniques, floating and segregation by density, UV irradiation and treatment using ultrasound. The effective- ness of these methods depends on the level of contamination and often results in a large amount of product being lost.
USE OF TOXIN BINDERS
In spite of all the precautions taken, the risk of finding contamination in raw materials remains. In this case, contaminated raw materials are given to animals. The last resort is therefore to work on reducing the animal’s absorption of mycotoxins.
Definition
A toxin binder is an indigestible substance desi- gned to reduce the absorption of mycotoxins by animals.
How it works
The toxin binder captures the mycotoxins before they reach the digestive tract. This means that mycotoxins are not absorbed through the intes- tine and therefore cannot have a negative effect on the animal’s health.
The grey atom is a radical that varies depending to the mycotoxin.
FUNGAL SOURCES
Fusarium sporotrichioides
Fusarium poae
Fusarium graminearum
Fusarium avenaceum
Fusarium culmorum
Fusarium langsethiae
Fusarium tricinctum
Fusarium solani
Fusarium equiseti
MYCOTOXINS
Diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS)
15-acetoxyscirpenol Toxin T-2 (T-2)
Toxin HT-2 (HT-2)
T-2 Tetraol
T-2 Triol Verrucarol
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Polar, non-ionizable, rigid, globular structure.
COMMODITIES CONCERNED
Corn, oats, wheat, barley, rice, rye, walnuts, tomatoes.
GEOGRAPHICAL AREAS CONCERNED
North America ……………….Frequent
South America ……………….Frequent
Europe – Russia……………….Frequent
Africa – Middle East …………Occasional
North Asia ……………………..Frequent
Southeast Asia …………………Occasional
- The toxicity of molecules in the trichothecene A family is ranked in this order: HT-2 ≈ T-2 < DAS.
- Trichothecenes A are viewed as 5 to 10 times more toxic than deoxynivalenol, depending on the species identified.
- Trichothecenes contaminate cereals but also fruits such as bananas.
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Molar volume: 310.8 ± 5.0 cm3
EFFECTS ON ANIMALS
Target
• Digestive system
Cellular mechanisms
• Cytotoxic for tissues with high proliferation or metabolic activity
Physiological effects
• Immune depression
• Ulceration of mucous membranes in the tongue, gums and mouth
Symptoms
Loss of appetite, slower growth, diarrhoea, anaemia, bleeding and ecchymosis, infertility, abortions, poor response to vaccination, increased sensitivity to infectious diseases.
Loss of appetite and intestinal disorders.
Oral lesions, necrosis of the digestive tract and lymphoid tissues.
Lesions in the mucous membranes of the mouth, loss of appetite ending in a refusal to eat.
- DAS is also known as anguidine.
- The effects of DAS appear earlier and at lower doses than those of T-2.
- There are synergies between the effects of DAS, T-2 and AFLA.
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Molar volume: 395.4 ± 5.0 cm3
EFFECTS ON ANIMALS
Target – Immune and digestive systems, epidermis
Cellular mechanisms – Powerful cytotoxic agent for the digestive, lymphoid and hematological systems – Induction of death of Natural Killer cells, humoral cells and T lymphocytes (immune cells)
Physiological effects – Ulceration of mucous membranes: haemorrhages and gastrointestinal necrosis
• Necrosis of bone marrow and spleen
• Immune depression
Symptoms – Reduced vaccine efficacy, increased sensitivity to infectious diseases, vomiting, diarrhoea, loss of appetite, dermatitis and reproductive disorde
Loss of appetite and intestinal disorders (enteritis)
Gastrointestinal haemorrhages leading to poor assimilation of food.
Lesions in the mucous membranes in the mouth, loss of appetite.
Scale not valid for poly-contamination.
- T-2 is the most toxic mycotoxin for the spinal cord.
- T-2 is more toxic than DON
- There are synergies between the effects of DAS, DON, AFLA and OCHRA.
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Molar volume: 357.7 ± 5.0 cm3
EFFECTS ON ANIMALS
Targets
• Immune and digestive systems, epidermis
Cellular mechanisms
• Powerful cytotoxic agent for the digestive, lymph and haematological systems
• Induces death of Natural Killer cells, humoral cells and T lymphocytes (immune cells)
Physiological effects
• Ulceration of mucous membranes: haemorrhage and gastrointestinal necrosis
• Necrosis of bone marrow and spleen
• Immune depression
Symptoms
Reduced vaccine efficacy, increased sensitivity to infectious diseases, vomiting, diarrhoea, loss of appetite, dermatitis and reproductive disorders
Loss of appetite and intestinal disorders (enteritis).
Gastrointestinal haemorrhage leading to poor assimilation of food.
Lesions in the mucous membranes in the mouth, loss of appetite.
Scale not valid for poly-contamination.
- HT-2 is more toxic than DON
- HT-2 is produced from T-2
The grey atom is a radical that varies depending to the mycotoxin.
FUNGAL SOURCES
Fusarium graminearum (roseum)
Fusarium culmorum
Fusarium nivale
Fusarium poae
Fusarium equiseti
Fusarium crookwellense
Fusarium acuminatum
Fusarium sambucinum
MYCOTOXINS
Deoxynivalenol (DON)
15-O-acetyl Deoxynivalenol (15-ADON)
3-acetyl Deoxynivalenol (3-ADON)
De-epoxy Deoxynivalenol (DOM-1)
Fusarenone X Nivalenol (NIV)
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Polar, non-ionizable, rigid, globular structure.
COMMODITIES CONCERNED
Corn, wheat, barley, rice, rye, oats, walnuts, tomatoes.
GEOGRAPHICAL AREAS CONCERNED
North America ………………Frequent
South America ……………….Frequent
Europe – Russia…………………Frequent
Africa – Middle East ……….Frequent
North Asia ………………Very frequent
Southeast Asia …………………Frequent
- The toxicity of molecules in the trichothecenes B family is ranked in this order:
3-ADON < DON < NIV = 15-ADON - Trichothecenes are made up of a tricyclic skeleton called trichothecane, hence their name.
- Group B trichothecenes are distinct from group A because of the presence of the carbon 8 ketone function.
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Molar volume: 231.8 ± 5.0 cm3
EFFECTS ON ANIMALS
Targets
• Immune and digestive systems
Cellular mechanisms
• Inhibits elongation of the protein chain
• Induces death of Natural Killer cells, macrophages and B and T lymphocytes (immune cells)
Physiological effects
• Deterioration of intestinal barrier function
• Reduction of intestinal absorption surface
• Immune depression
• Interaction with growth hormone (IGF-1)
• Disruption to the chemical balance of the nervous system
Symptoms
Loss of appetite, diarrhoea, reproductive disorders, poor response to vaccination, increased sensitivity to infectious diseases
Nervosity, loss of appetite, deterioration in feed efficiency, diarrhoea, vomiting, refusal to eat.
In the absence of acidosis, partial detoxification of DON into DOM-1 by protozoa followed by a fall in the
protozoa population; poor assimilation of food, decline in production and quality of milk, immune-system
disorders.
Deterioration in feed efficiency, poor shell quality, decline in egg production.
Scale not valid for poly-contamination.
- DON is one of the world’s best-known and most-common toxins.
- Because of its tendency to induce vomiting in pigs, DON is also known as vomitoxin.
- There is a high level of synergy between DON and FB1 on the integrity of the intestinal mucous membrane and on immunity
- There are synergies between DON, T-2 and AFLA.
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Molar volume: 269.8 ± 5.0 cm3
EFFECTS ON ANIMALS
Targets
• Immune and digestive systems
Cellular mechanisms
• Inhibits elongation of the protein chain
• Induces death of Natural killer cells, macrophages and B and T lymphocytes (immune cells)
Physiological effects
• Deterioration of intestinal barrier function
• Reduction of intestinal absorption surface
• Immune depression
• Decline in growth hormone (IGF-1)
• Disruption to the chemical balance of the nervous system
Symptoms
Loss of appetite, diarrhoea, reproductive disorders, poor response to vaccination, increased sensitivity to infectious diseases.
Nervosity, loss of appetite, deterioration in feed efficiency, diarrhoea, vomiting.
Poor assimilation of food, decline in production and quality of milk, immune-system disorders.
Deterioration in feed efficiency, poor shell quality, decline in egg production.
Scale not valid for poly-contamination.
- 15-ADON is at least twice as toxic as DON.
- There is a high probability that 15-ADON will be present when DON is detected in a foodstuff.
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Molar volume: 229.8 ± 5.0 cm3
EFFECTS ON ANIMALS
Targets
• Immune and digestive systems
Cellular mechanisms
• Inhibits elongation of the protein chain
• Induces death of cells
• Induces death of Natural killer cells, macrophages and B and T lymphocytes (immune cells)
Physiological effects
• Deterioration of intestinal barrier function
• Reduction of intestinal absorption surface
• Immune depression
• Decline in growth hormone (IGF-1)
• Disruption to the chemical balance of the nervous system
Symptoms
Loss of appetite, diarrhoea, reproductive disorders, poor response to vaccination, increased sensitivity to infectious diseases.
Nervosity, loss of appetite, deterioration in feed efficiency, diarrhoea, vomiting
Poor assimilation of food, decline in production and quality of milk, immune-system disorders.
Deterioration in feed efficiency, poor shell quality, decline in egg production.
Scale not valid for poly-contamination.
- VIN is at least twice as toxic as DON
- Niv is the most common trichothecene B after DON.
The grey atom is a radical that varies according to the mycotoxin.
FUNGAL SOURCES
Fusarium proliferatum
Fusarium verticillioides (moniliform)
MYCOTOXINS
Fumonisin B1 (FB1)
Fumonisin B2 (FB2)
Fumonisin B3 (FB3)
Fumonisin B4 (FB4)
DEVELOPMENT
Between 5 and 40 °C F. verticillioides develops best between 25 and 30 °C
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Polar, ionizable, flexible, wide range of rotations, family includes the most important mycotoxins.
COMMODITIES CONCERNED
Corn, wheat, barley, rice, rye, oats, walnuts, tomatoes, sorghum, millet.
GEOGRAPHICAL AREAS CONCERNED
North America …………….Occasional
South America ……………….Frequent
Europe – Russia………………Frequent
Africa – Middle East ……..Occasional
North Asia ………………….Occasional
Southeast Asia …………….Occasional
- The toxicity of molecules in the trichothecene B family is ranked in this order: FB3 < FB2 < FB1
- Fumonisins can be detected by a biomarker, the ratio of shingosine to sphinganine .
- Fumonisins are classified as Group 2B carcinogens by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC).
- Ears of corn (maize) can contain high levels of fumonisins yet appear normal.
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Molar volume: 575.1 ± 3.0 cm3
EFFECTS ON ANIMALS
Targets
• Liver, brain
Cellular mechanisms
• Inhibition of lipid metabolism (example: sphingosins in the liver)
• Reduction in renewal of epithelial cells
• Induces death of phagocytes and B lymphocytes (immune cells)
Physiological effects
• Necrosis of the liver and kidneys
• Lesions on the central nervous system
• Deterioration of intestinal barrier function
• Reduction of intestinal absorption surface
• Immune depression
Symptoms
Poor response to vaccination, increased sensitivity to infectious diseases, loss of appetite, lethargy, respiratory disorders.
Hepatopathies, tumours, pulmonary oedema.
No deterioration of fumonisins in the rumen, poor assimilation of food.
Peak mortality, paralysis, poor growth.
Scale not valid for poly-contamination.
- FB1 is mainly found in maize.
- There is a high degree of synergy between DON and FB1 on the integrity of the intestinal mucous membrane and on immunity.
- Fat-duck farming relies on the ingestion of a large quantity of corn (maize) during the forcefeeding stage, which can contain high doses of
hepatotoxic fumonisins. - FB1 is responsible for leucoencephalomalacia in horses.
Hepatopathies, tumors, pulmonary edema.
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Molar volume: 577.3 ± 3.0 cm3
EFFECTS ON ANIMALS
Targets
• Liver, brain
Cellular mechanisms
• Inhibition of lipid metabolism (example: sphingosins in the liver)
• Reduction in renewal of epithelial cells
• Induces cell death of phagocytes and B lymphocytes (immune cells)
Physiological effects
• Necrosis of the liver and kidneys
• Lesions on the central nervous system
• Deterioration of intestinal barrier function
• Reduction of intestinal absorption surface
• Immune depression
Symptoms
Poor response to vaccination, increased sensitivity to infectious diseases, loss of appetite, lethargy, respiratory disorders.
Hepatopathies, tumors, pulmonary edema.
No alteration of fumonisins in the rumen, poor ration utilization
Peak mortality, paralysis, slow growth.
Scale not valid for poly-contamination.
- FB2 is less toxic than FB1 as there is a hydroxy group missing from its structure.
- If FB1 is detected, the level identified should be multiplied by 1.2 to take account of combined contamination with FB2 (FB2 = 20% of the contamination of FB1)
The grey atom is a radical that varies according to the mycotoxin.
FUNGAL SOURCES
Fusarium graminearum (roseum)
Fusarium culmorum
Fusarium sporotrichioides
Fusarium semitectum
Fusarium equiseti
Fusarium crookwellense
MYCOTOXINS
Zearalenone
α-Zearalenol
α-Zearalanol
β-Zearalenol
β-Zearalanol
DEVELOPMENT
Zearalenone production is very low at 32°C and maximum at 20°C, with variations between producing strains.
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Moderately polar, non-ionizable, flexible (can be rotated).
COMMODITIES CONCERNED
Corn, barley, rice, oats, rye, sorghum, soybeans, wheat.
GEOGRAPHICAL AREAS CONCERNED
North America ………………Contact
South America ……………….Frequent
Europe – Russia…………………Contact
Africa – Middle East ……….Contact
North Asia ……………………..Frequent
Southeast Asia …………………Frequent
- The ZEAs are close to oestrogen in structure, causing hyperoestrogenism.
- Their oestrogenic power could be ranked in the following order:
β-Zearalenol < Zearalenone < α-Zearalanol < α -Zearalenol - Dairy cows are sensitive to Zearalenone because the metabolites produced from the activity of their rumen (α-zearalanol) are four to ten times more toxic than Zearalenone itself.
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Molar volume: 272.3 ± 3.0 cm3
EFFECTS ON ANIMALS
Target
• Reproductive system
Cellular mechanisms
• Occupation of estrogenic receptors in the uterus, mammary glands and liver
Physiological effects
• Hyperoestrogenism
• Severe reproductive disorders
• Dysfunction of the reproductive system (vulva, mammary glands and uterus) leading to embryo death
• Peripartum difficulties
Reddening and swelling of the vulva and mammary glands, decline in sow prolificacy, reduction in quantity and
quality of sperm, feminisation of young males (enlargement of teats, testicular atrophy and swelling of the prepuce).
Embryo death, numerous returns to heat, ovarian cysts.
Poor fertility and hatchability, poor growth of progeny, decline in egg production.
Scale not valid for poly-contamination.
- The structure of ZEA is sufficiently flexible to allow a conformation capable of binding to oestrogen receptors in the mammary glands,
where it acts as an agonist. - ZEA may be present in large quantities when corn (maize) is cultivated in temperate conditions, for example at altitude.
- ZEA is regularly observed alongside DON, NIV and FUM: polycontamination.
The grey atom is a radical that varies according to the mycotoxin.
FUNGAL SOURCES
Aspergillus flavus
Aspergillus parasiticus
Aspergillus nomius
Aspergillus pseudotamarii
MYCOTOXINS
Alfatoxin B1 (AFB1)
Alfatoxin B2 (AFB2)
Alfatoxin M1 (AFM1)
Alfatoxin M2 (AFM2)
DEVELOPMENT
Between 12 and 40 °C
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Averagely polar: electron movements possible, non-ionisable, rigid, mainly flat
COMMODITIES CONCERNED
Corn, wheat, barley, oats, peanuts and nuts, rye, rice, soybeans.
GEOGRAPHICAL AREAS CONCERNED
North America ……………….Frequent
South America ………..Very Frequent
Europe – Russia……………………. Rare
Africa – Middle East …Very Frequent
North Asia ………………………….. Rare
Southeast Asia ……………….Frequent
- The toxicity of molecules in the aflatoxin family is ranked in this order:
AFG2 < AFB2 < AFG1 < AFM1 < AFB1 - Mycotoxicology begins with the aflatoxins, which were discovered during an outbreak of poisoning on turkey farms in England in 1960
(Turkey X disease). - Aflatoxins are classed as carcinogenic group 1 by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC).
- The name aflatoxin comes from the fungal producer Aspergillus flavus.
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Molar volume: 199.5 ± 5.0 cm3
EFFECTS ON ANIMALS
Targets
• Liver, immune system
Cellular mechanisms
• Inhibition of DNA and RNA synthesis
• Reduction in digestive enzyme activity
• Reduction in activity T lymphocytes and phagocytes (immune cells)
Physiological effects
• Hepatotoxicity
• Reduction in lipid digestion
• Reduction in renal function
• Immune depression
Symptoms
Poor response to vaccination, increased sensitivity to infectious diseases, loss of appetite, reduction in feed efficiency
Hepatic disorders, agalactia, abortions.
Increase in somatic cells in milk, transformation of AFB1 into AFM1 in the liver, milk contamination.
Very hepatotoxic in ducks, reduction in egg production, foot problems and embryotoxicity.
Scale not valid for poly-contamination.
- ABF1 is the most toxic of the alphatoxins.
- Because it is carcinogenic, AFB1 is subject to regulation. In Europe, the maximum permitted dose in feed is 5 ppb (dairy cows), 20 ppb (pigs and poultry) and 50 ppb (non-dairy ruminants).
- There are synergies between AFB1, T-2, DAS, DON and OCHRA.
- It is called Aflatoxin “B” because it emits a “blue” light under ultraviolet light.
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Molar volume: 206.2 ± 5.0 cm3
EFFECTS ON ANIMALS
Targets
• Liver, immune system
Cellular mechanisms
• Inhibits activity of phagocytes and T and B lymphocytes (immune cells)
Physiological effects
• Hepatotoxicity
• Atrophy of lymphoid organs
Symptoms
Reduction in feed intake, prostrate position, poor response to vaccination, increased sensitivity to infectious diseases.
Hepatic disorders, deterioration in feed efficiency.
Increase in somatic cells in milk and milk contamination.
Very hepatotoxic in ducks, reduction in egg production, foot problems and embryotoxicity.
Scale not valid for poly-contamination.
- ABF1 is around 5 times more toxic than AFB1.
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Molar volume: 196.7 ± 5.0 cm3
EFFECTS ON ANIMALS
Targets
• Liver, immune system
Cellular mechanisms
• Inhibition of DNA and RNA synthesis
• Reduction in digestive enzyme activity
• Reduction in activity of phagocytes and T and B lymphocytes (immune cells)
Physiological effects
• Hepatotoxicity
• Reduction in lipid digestion
• Reduction in renal function
• Immune depression
Symptoms
Poor response to vaccination, increased sensitivity to infectious diseases, loss of appetite, reduction in feed efficiency.
Average transfer of 0.3-6% AFB1 to AFM1 in milk, possible calf exposure.
Scale not valid for poly-contamination.
- AFM1 is commonly known as Milk Alfatoxin 1
- AFM1 is the only mycotoxin significantly transferred into milk
- Because of its carcinogenic nature, AFM1 is a regulated mycotoxin in milk:0.05 ppb in Europe 0.5 ppb in the United States
- Only the consumption of milk or certain milk by-products exposes you to AFM1
The grey atom is a radical that varies according to the mycotoxin.
FUNGAL SOURCES
Penicillium verrucosum (viridicatum)
Aspergillus ochraceus
Aspergillus carbonarius
MYCOTOXINS
Ochratoxin A (OTA)
Ochratoxin B (OTB)
Ochratoxin C (OTC)
Ochratoxin α
Ochratoxin β
DEVELOPMENT
Between 8 and 37°C for Aspergillus ochraceus, optimal between 24 and 31°C.
Between 0 and 31°C for Penicilium verrucosum, optimal at 20°C.
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Medium-polar: electronic movements in two zones, ionizable, flexible (wide range of rotations).
COMMODITIES CONCERNED
Grapes, coffee, wheat, corn, rye, barley, oats, rice, soybeans, cocoa, beans, peas.
GEOGRAPHICAL AREAS CONCERNED
North America ……………….Occasional
South America ………………………. Rare
Europe – Russia…………………Frequent
Africa – Middle East ……….Occasional
North Asia ……………………..Occasional
Southeast Asia ………………..Occasional
- The toxicity of molecules in the OCHRATOXIN family is classified in this order: OTB < OTA
- Wine and grape juice can be contaminated with OCHRATOXINS.
- The name OCHRATOXIN comes from the fungus Aspergillus ochraceus.
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Molar volume: 283.2 ± 3.0 cm3
EFFECTS ON ANIMALS
Targets
• Kidneys, immune system
Cellular mechanisms
• Inhibition of glucose synthesis in the kidneys
• Deterioration of hepatic enzymes
• Induces death of Natural killer cells and B lymphocytes (immune cells)
Physiological effects
• Significant impact on kidneys (nephritis)
• Thymus involution
• Diabetogenic effect
• Immune depression
Symptoms
Poor response to vaccination, increased sensitivity to infectious diseases, renal insufficiency, prostrate position, shaking and reduced reflexes.
Renal lesions, uremia.
Partial deterioration of ochratoxin A by protozoa in the absence of acidosis in phenylalanine and ochratoxin α (less toxic) or ochratoxin C (more toxic). Significant immune system and carcinogenic disorders.
Deterioration in feed efficiency and egg production and urate deposits in abdominal cavity and joints.
Scale not valid for poly-contamination.
- Ochratoxins are classed as carcinogenic in group 2B by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC).
- There are synergies between OCHRA, AFLA and T-2.
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Molar volume: 271.2 ± 3.0 cm3
EFFECTS ON ANIMALS
Targets
• Kidneys, immune system
Cellular mechanisms
• Inhibition of glucose synthesis in the kidneys
• Deterioration of hepatic enzymes
• Induces death of Natural Killer cells and B lymphocytes (immune cells)
Physiological effects
• Significant impact on kidneys (nephritis)
• Thymus involution
• Diabetogenic effect
• Immune depression
Symptoms
Poor response to vaccination, increased sensitivity to infectious diseases, renal insufficiency, prostrate position, shaking and reduced reflexes.
Renal lesions, uremia.
Significant immune-system and carcinogenic disorders.
Deterioration in feed efficiency and egg production and urate deposits in abdominal cavity and joints.
Scale not valid for poly-contamination.
- OchratoxinB is a derivative of ochratoxin A, its dechlorinated analog.
- Ochratoxins are synergistic with AFLA and T-2 in chickens.
The grey atom is a radical that varies according to the mycotoxin.
FUNGAL SOURCES
Claviceps purpurea
Claviceps paspali
Claviceps africana
Claviceps fusiformis
Claviceps cyperi
MYCOTOXINS
Ergocornine
Ergocristine
Ergocryptine
Ergometrine
Ergosine
Ergotamine
DEVELOPMENT
Temperature around 20°C (cool, damp spring).
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
From ergoline: averagely polar: electron movements possible, ionisable depending on the substituent, rigid, mainly flat.
COMMODITIES CONCERNED
Rye, barley, wheat, oats and co-products.
GEOGRAPHICAL AREAS CONCERNED
North America ………………Occasional
South America ……………………… Rare
Europe – Russia……………..Occasional
Africa – Middle East …………Frequent
North Asia ……………………Occasional
Southeast Asia ………………Occasional
- All ergot alkaloids are based on a tetracyclic structure called ergoline.
- Alkaloids are contained in sclerotia (masses of hard mycelia tissue) of varying shapes, dimensions and colours depending on the
foodstuff contaminated. - The size of the sclerotia makes them difficult to sort in grains and cereals.
- The ergopeptides act as an agonist for dopamine (the pleasure hormone).
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Molar volume: 393.4 ± 5.0 cm3
EFFECTS ON ANIMALS
Target
• Nervous system
Cellular mechanisms
• Inhibition of alpha and beta adrenergic receptors
• Reduction in level of serum prolactin
Physiological effects
• Stimulation of smooth muscles
• Sharp drop in blood flow
• Fat necrosis
Symptoms
Loss of appetite, hypernervosity, gangrene in extremities, reproductive disorders.
Agalactia, high piglet mortality, necrosis, gangrene, reproductive disorders.
Swelling of feet and lameness, diarrhoea, hypersalivation, intense thirst, severe shaking.
Reduction in growth and rate of lay, high chick mortality, gangrene of the crest, tongue and beak, liquid droppings.
- Most ergot alkaloids have similar effects but with variable toxicity.
- In the case of ergot in cereals, cleaning the grains is important. Good-quality blowing will help to reduce the level of contamination by ergot alkaloids.
- Ergot was responsible for hallucinogenic effects in humans from the 8th to the 16th century because of the consumption of contaminated rye bread, a phenomenon known as St Anthony’s fire
Tenuazonic acid structure
FUNGAL SOURCES
Alternaria alternata
Alternaria solani
Pyricularia oryzae
Phoma sorghina
Alternaria tenuissima
MYCOTOXINS
Tenuazonic acid (TeA)
Alternariol
Alternariol monomethyl ether
Tentoxin
Altertoxins (I, II, and III)
Stemphyltoxin III
Altenene
Alternaria alternata toxins F.
splycopersici toxins
DEVELOPMENT
Optimum development of Alternaria between 18 and 25°C Optimum toxin production at 25°C
COMMODITIES CONCERNED
Sorghum, wheat, barley, oats, rice, corn, tobacco, apple, melon, mandarin orange, olive, pepper, tomato, rapeseed, sunflower.
GEOGRAPHICAL AREAS CONCERNED
North America ………………….Frequent
South America ………………….Frequent
Europe – Russia…………………Frequent
Africa – Middle East ……… Occasional
North Asia …………………….Occasional
Southeast Asia ……………….Occasional
- The spores of these moulds are known for being highly allergenic as soon as they are inhaled.
- Species of Alternaria are necrotrophic and commonly found on dead organic matter.
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Molar volume: 167.3 ± 3.0 cm3
EFFECTS ON ANIMALS
Targets
• Liver, kidneys
Cellular mechanisms
• Inhibition of ribosome activity
• Inhibition of lipid metabolism (example: sphinganin in the liver)
• Death of renal cells
Physiological effects
• Increase in internal haemorrhages and necrosis of the liver and kidneys
Symptoms
Nervous and intestinal disorders, hypersalivation, vomiting and anorexia
Deterioration in feed efficiency and poor growth
Poor assimilation of food and decline in productivity.
Deterioration in feed efficiency and poor growth.
- Tenuazonic acid is more toxic than alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether and altenuene.
- Tenuazonic acid is viewed as two times less toxic than DON
Aspergillus flavus
Aspergillus tamarii
Aspergillus versicolor
Penicillium camembertii
Penicillium cyclopium
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Molar volume: 235.9 ± 5.0 cm3
EFFECTS ON ANIMALS
Targets
• Digestive system, kidneys
Cellular mechanisms
• Inhibition of calcium and other cation assimilation by chelation
Physiological effects
• Deterioration in the muscle contraction/relaxation cycle
• Digestive necrosis
Symptoms
Loss of appetite, decline in muscular activity, ptosis of the eyelids resulting from paralysis of the levator muscle, nervous disorders, prostrate position.
DEVELOPMENT
Slow maturation of producing strains at 25°C and very slow at 4 and 13°C
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Moderately polar, electronic movements in two zones, non-ionizable, rigid, rather flat.
COMMODITIES CONCERNED
Numerous commodities, particularly corn and peanuts.
TOXICITY
Low toxicity
Inactivity, anorexia, rough coat, diarrhea.
Decreased intake and body condition.
Inflammation of the digestive system, bleeding, poor shell quality.
- Cyclopiazonic acid inhibits AFB1 metabolism.
- Cyclopiazonic acid is present in co-contamination with AFLA.
- Cyclopiazonic acid can be transferred to eggs and meat.
FUNGAL SOURCES
Penicillium citrinum
Penicillium verrucosum
Penicillium expansum
Aspergillus Monascus
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Molar volume: 181.5 ± 5.0 cm3
EFFECTS ON ANIMALS
Targets
• Digestive system, kidneys
Cellular mechanisms
• Inhibition of calcium and other cation assimilation by chelation
Physiological effects
• Deterioration in the muscle contraction/relaxation cycle
• Digestive necrosis
Symptoms
Loss of appetite, decline in muscular activity, ptosis of the eyelids resulting from paralysis of the levator muscle, nervous disorders, prostrate position.
DEVELOPMENT
Optimum development of P. expansum at 25 °C
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Moderately polar, large electronic shifts, ionizable, rigid, rather flat.
COMMODITIES CONCERNED
Rice, corn, barley, oats, rye, wheat, nuts, peanuts, sunflower.
TOXICITY
Low toxicity
Kidney damage, increase in excreted urine volume (up to 2.5-fold).
Pruritus, fever and bleeding, birth of calf with oral malformation.
Malformation of the extremities, malformation of the brain and eyes, increased water consumption, liquid droppings.
- Citrinin, like OTA, is suspected of being one of the factors involved in swine and avian nephropathies.
- Citrinin is often present simultaneously with OTA.
- Heat treatment breaks down citrinin into citrinin H1 (higher cytotoxicity) or citrinin H2 (lower cytoxicity).
Aspergillus clavatus Aspergillus terreus Penicillium expansum Penicillium claviforme Penicillium roquefortii
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Molar volume: 101.3 ± 5.0 cm3
EFFECTS ON ANIMALS
Targets
• Digestive system, kidneys
Cellular mechanisms
• Inhibition of calcium and other cation assimilation by chelation
Physiological effects
• Deterioration in the muscle contraction/relaxation cycle
• Digestive necrosis
Symptoms
Loss of appetite, decline in muscular activity, ptosis of the eyelids resulting from paralysis of the levator muscle, nervous disorders, prostrate position.
DEVELOPMENT
Patulin production by Aspergillus and Penicillium is optimal between 20 and 25 °C.
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Moderately polar, large electronic shifts, ionizable, rigid, rather flat.
COMMODITIES CONCERNED
Apple, forage (rare).
Reduction in fibre digestion, negative effect on production of volatile fatty acids and microbial protein synthesis.
- Patulin is subject to stringent regulations for apple-based products.
- Farm animals’ exposure to patulin is low because it mainly develops on apples.
Aspergillus versicolor
Aspergillus nidulans
Aspergillus flavus
Aspergillus parasiticus
Emericella Chaetomium
Botryotrichum Humicola
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Molar volume: 214.7 ± 3.0 cm3
EFFECTS ON ANIMALS
Targets
• Liver, immune system
Cellular mechanisms
• Inhibition of DNA and RNA synthesis
• Reduction in digestive enzyme activity
• Reduction in lymphocyte activity (immune cells)
Physiological effects
• Hepatotoxicity
• Reduction in lipid digestion
• Reduction in renal function
• Immune depression
Symptoms
Poor response to vaccination, increased sensitivity to infectious diseases, loss of appetite, reduction in feed efficiency
DEVELOPMENT
Optimum production of A. versicolor toxins between 23 and 29°C, even in low-humidity conditions.
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Moderately polar, large electronic shifts, non-ionizable, rigid, rather flat.
COMMODITIES CONCERNED
Cereals, green coffee, spices, nuts, beer and cheese (on the surface, in case of fungal spoilage during ripening and storage).
TOXICITY
Effects similar to AFB1 but with less toxicity
Hepatic disorders, agalactia, abortions.
Increased somatic cell count, milk contamination.
Reduction in egg production, foot problems and embryotoxicity.
- STC is viewed as the biosynthetic precursor of alfatoxin.
- STC is classed as a Group 2B carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC).
- STC has carcinogenic power approximately three times lower than AFB1.
- O-methylsterigmatocytin is the direct precursor of AFB1 and AFG1.
Beauvericin, enniatins and moniliformin are emerging mycotoxins.
As documentation is very recent, not all data are yet available, particularly those concerning farm animals.
FUNGAL SOURCES
Fusarium proliferatum
Fusarium oxysporum
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Molar volume: 52.2 ± 3.0 cm3
EFFECTS ON ANIMALS
Target
• Heart
Cellular mechanisms
• Disruption to conversion of pyruvate into acetyl-Co-A
Physiological effects
• Disruption to cellular respiration
• Heart enlargement
• Haemorrhages in the heart, liver, kidneys and muscles
• Immune depression
Symptoms
Poor response to vaccination, increased sensitivity to infectious diseases, muscular weakness, respiratory and cardiac disorders.
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Polar, non-ionizable, rigid, flat, one of the smallest mycotoxins.
COMMODITIES CONCERNED
Corn, wheat, barley, rye, triticale, oats, rice, sorghum, pepper, flax, soya, millet.
Cardiac problems, reduction in growth and increased mortality
- The mink seems to be one of the most sensitive mammals to MON
Beauvericin, enniatins and moniliformin are emerging mycotoxins.
As documentation is very recent, not all data are yet available, particularly those concerning farm animals.
FUNGAL SOURCES
Beaveria bassiana
Fusarium Paecilomyces
Polyporus Isaria
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Molar volume: 695.8 ± 3.0 cm3
EFFECTS ON ANIMALS
Target
• Heart
Cellular mechanisms
• Cholesterol-acyltransferase inhibitor
• May induce cell death and DNA fragmentation
Physiological effects
• Reduction in strength of cardiac contraction
• Reduction in frequency of spontaneous heartbeat
Symptoms
Respiratory difficulties
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Moderately polar, electronic shifts possible, non-ionizable, flexible, very large molecule.
COMMODITIES CONCERNED
Corn, wheat, barley, oats, rye.
- BEA has a structure similar to that of enniatins.
- BEA has antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, antitumor and insecticidal properties.
Beauvericin, enniatins and moniliformin are emerging mycotoxins.
As documentation is very recent, not all data are yet available, especially those concerning farm animals.
FUNGAL SOURCES
usarium sambucinum
Fusarium oxysporum
Fusarium avenaceum
Fusarium tricinctum
Fusarium culmorum
Fusarium poae
Fusarium lateritium
Fusarium scirpi
Fusarium torulosum
Verticillium hemipterigenum
Halosarpheia Alternaria
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Molar volume: 666.7 ± 3.0 cm3
EFFECTS ON ANIMALS
Cellular mechanisms – Homeostasis disorders – Cytotoxic Physiological effects – Liver disorders
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Moderately polar, electronic shifts possible, non-ionizable, flexible, very large molecules.
COMMODITIES CONCERNED
Barley, oats, wheat, rye.
- Fungi that produce enniatins have been isolated from various sources, such as walnuttree leaves and balsam fir needles
- The cytotoxicity of enniatins is potentially interesting in terms of human and veterinary treatments.
